ANCIENT GREECE

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Architecture in ancient Greece:
Greek life was dominated by religion and so it is not surprising that the temples of ancient Greece were the biggest and most beautiful.They also had a political purpose as they were often built to celebrate civic power and pride, or offer thanksgiving to the patron deity of a city for success in war.

* Greek Temple Architecture

The Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with their own distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.


Doric Style
The Doric style is rather sturdy and its top (the capital), is plain. This style was used in mainland Greece and the colonies in southern Italy and Sicily.






Ionic Style
The Ionic style is thinner and more elegant. Its capital is decorated with a scroll-like design (a volute). This style was found in eastern Greece and the islands.



Corinthian Style
The Corinthian style is seldom used in the Greek world, but often seen on Roman temples. Its capital is very elaborate and decorated with acanthus leaves.



















Doric Order:
Parthenon
Parthenon - temple of Athena Parthenos ("Virgin"), Greek goddess of wisdom, on the Acropolis in Athens. The Parthenon was built in the 5th century BC, and despite the enormous damage it has sustained over the centuries, it still communicates the ideals of order and harmony for which Greek architecture is known.

Ionic Order:
Erechtheum
Erechtheum - temple from the middle classical period of Greek art and architecture, built on the Acropolis of Athens between 421 and 405BC.
The Erechtheum contained sanctuaries to Athena Polias, Poseidon, and Erechtheus. The requirements of the several shrines and the location upon a sloping site produced an unusual plan. From the body of the building porticoes project on east, north, and south sides. The eastern portico, hexastyle Ionic, gave access to the shrine of Athena, which was separated by a partition from the western cella. The northern portico, tetrastyle Ionic, stands at a lower level and gives access to the western cella through a fine doorway. The southern portico, known as the Porch of the Caryatids (see caryatid) from the six sculptured draped female figures that support its entablature, is the temple's most striking feature; it forms a gallery or tribune. The west end of the building, with windows and engaged Ionic columns, is a modification of the original, built by the Romans when they restored the building. One of the east columns and one of the caryatids were removed to London by Lord Elgin, replicas being installed in their places.

Temple of Apollo at Didyma
The Temple of Apollo at Didyma - The Greeks built the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, Turkey (about 300 BC). The design of the temple was known as dipteral, a term that refers to the two sets of columns surrounding the interior section. These columns surrounded a small chamber that housed the statue of Apollo. With Ionic columns reaching 19.5 m (64 ft) high, these ruins suggest the former grandeur of the ancient temple.

The Temple of Athena Nike
The Temple of Athena Nike - part of the Acropolis in the city of Athens. The Greeks built the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, Turkey (about 300 BC). The design of the temple was known as dipteral, a term that refers to the two sets of columns surrounding the interior section. These columns surrounded a small chamber that housed the statue of Apollo. With Ionic columns reaching 19.5 m (64 ft) high, these ruins suggest the former grandeur of the ancient temple.


Corinthian Order:
The temple of Zeus
- most ornate of the classic orders of architecture. It was also the latest, not arriving at full development until the middle of the 4th cent. B.C. The oldest known example, however, is found in the temple of Apollo at Bassae (c.420 B.C.). The Greeks made little use of the order; the chief example is the circular structure at Athens known as the choragic monument of Lysicrates ( 335 B.C.). The temple of Zeus at Athens (started in the 2d cent. B.C. and completed by Emperor Hadrian in the 2d cent. A.D.) was perhaps the most notable of the Corinthian temles

The history of Greece can be traced back to Stone Age hunters. Later came early farmers and thecivilizations of the Minoan and Mycenaean kings. This was followed by a period of wars and invasions, known as the Dark Ages. In about 1100 BC, a people called the Dorians invaded from the north and spread down the west coast. In the period from 500-336 BC Greece was divided into small city states, each of which consisted of a city and its surrounding countryside.

There were only a few historians in the time of Ancient Greece. Three major ancient historians, were able to record their time of Ancient Greek history, that include Herodotus, known as the 'Father of History' who travelled to many ancient historic sites at the time, Thucydides and Xenophon.

Most other forms of History knowledge and accountability of the ancient Greeks we know is because of temples, sculpture, pottery, artefacts and other archaeological findings.


* Troy
* Alexandria

Ancient Greece
Athens is the symbol of freedom, art, and democracy in the conscience of the civilized world. The capital of Greece took its name from the goddess Athena, the goddess of wisdom and knowledge.
In Athens memory never fades. Wherever you stand, wherever you turn, the city's long and rich history will be alive in front of you. This is where that marvel of architecture, the Parthenon, was created. This is where art became inseparable from life, and this is where Pericles gave the funerary speech, that monument of the spoken word. In the centre of town are two hills, the Acropolis with the monuments from the Age of Pericles, and Lycabettus with the picturesque chapel of Ai Giorgis.
Ancient ruins provide a vivid testimony to the glory of Athens, hailed by many people as the cradle of western civilization.
Ancient Greece - important cities and states
Sparta a beautiful town near the river Evrotas, located in the centre of the Peloponnese in southern Greece, is the capital of the prefecture of Lakonia. SPARTA ( known in Greek as Sparti) has a history which dates back to the Neolithic period, at least 3,000 years before Christ.
Even in its most prosperous days, it was merely a group of five villages with simple houses and a few public buildings. The passes leading into the valley of the Evrotas were easily defended, and Sparta had no walls until the end of the 4th century BC. The city itself was destroyed by the Goths under their king, Alaric I, in 396 AD.
Modern Sparta, founded by the government in 1834, occupies part of the site of ancient Sparta and is the capital of the department of Laconia. Excavations of the ancient city have uncovered ruins of temples and public buildings as well as a theatre dating from the Roman period, but the sparse remains are insignificant for a city of such renown in antiquity.

* Ancient Greece: Sparta
* Sparta from Laconian Professionals
* Materials for the Study of Ancient Sparta
* Ancient Sites - Athens


Social Structure and Government
Social Structure

Greece in the Archaic Period was made up from independent states, called Polis, or city state. The polis of Athens included about 2,500 sq kilometres of territory, but other Polis with smaller areas of 250 sq kilometres.

Greek Society was mainly broken up between Free people and Slaves, who were owned by the free people. Slaves were used as servants and labourers, without any legal rights. Sometimes the slaves were prisoners of war or bought from foreign slave traders. Although many slaves lived closely with their owners, few were skilled craftsmen and even fewer were paid.

As Athenian society evolved, free men were divided between Citizens and Metics. A citizen was born with Athenian parents and were the most powerful group, that could take part in the government of the Polis. After compulsory service in the army they were expected to be government officials and take part in Jury Service. A metic was of foreign birth that had migrated to Athens, to either trade or practice a craft. A metic had to pay taxes and sometimes required to serve in the army. However, they could never achieve full right s of a Citizen, neither could they own houses or land and were not allowed to speak in law courts.

The social classes applied to men only, as women all took their social and legal status from their husband or their male partner. Women in ancient Greece were not permitted to take part in public life.
Government

c.800 BC
The majority of Greek states were governed by groups of rich landowners, called aristocrats; this word is derived from 'aristoi', meaning best people. This was a system known as 'oligarchy' the rule by the few.

c.750 BC
Athenian power in the Archaic Period was controlled by Aeropagus, or council. Their policies were delivered through three magistrates called Archons.

c.500 BC
Democracy was introduced by an aristocrat, Cleisthenes. Who was from family of the Alcmaeonids in 508 BC, after 2 years of civil war, they used the help of Spartans to secure power.

Ancient Greek Everyday(http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Life/)
Ancient Greek Language (http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/AncientGreekLanguage/)
Ancient Greek Clothing (http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Clothing/)
Ancient Greek Jewelry (http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Jewelry/)
Ancient Greek Theatre (http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Theatre/)


OLYMPIC:

The Greeks invented athletic contests and held them in honour of their gods. The Isthmos game were staged every two years at the Isthmos of Corinth. The Pythian games took place every four years near Delphi. The most famous games held at Olympia, South- West of Greece, which took place every four years. The ancient Olympics seem to have begun in the early 700 BC, in honour of Zeus. No women were allowed to watch the games and only Greek nationals could participate. One of the ancient wonders was a statue of Zeus at Olympia, made of gold and ivory by a Greek sculptor Pheidias. This was placed inside a Temple, although it was a towering 42 feet high.

The games at Olympia were greatly expanded from a one-day festival of athletics and wrestling to, in 472 BC, five days with many events. The order of the events is not precisely known, but the first day of the festival was devoted to sacrifices. On the Middle Day of the festival 100 oxen were sacrificed in honor of a God. Athletes also often prayed and made small sacrifices themselves..

On the second day, the foot-race, the main event of the games, took place in the stadium, an oblong area enclosed by sloping banks of earth.
At Olympia there were 4 different types of races; The first was stadion, the oldest event of the Games, where runners sprinted for 1 stade, the length of the stadium(192m). The other races were a 2-stade race (384 m.), and a long-distance run which ranged from 7 to 24 stades (1,344 m. to 4,608 m.).The fourth type of race involved runners wearing full amor, which was 2-4 stade race (384 m. to 768 m.), used to build up speed and stamina for military purposes.

On other days, wrestling, boxing, and the pancratium, a combination of the two, were held. In wrestling, the aim was to throw the opponent to the ground three times, on either his hip, back or shoulder. In ancient Greek wrestling biting and genital holds were illegal.

Boxing became more and more brutal; at first the pugilists wound straps of soft leather over their fingers as a means of deadening the blows, but in later times hard leather, sometimes weighted with metal, was used. In the pancratium, the most rigorous of the sports, the contest continued until one or the other of the participants acknowledged defeat.

Horse-racing, in which each entrant owned his horse, was confined to the wealthy but was nevertheless a popular attraction. The course was 6 laps of the track, with separate races for whereupon the rider would have no stirrups. It was only wealthy people that could pay for such training, equipment, and feed of both the rider and the horses. So whichever horse won it was not the rider who was awarded the Olive wreath but the owner. There were also Chariot races, that consisted of both 2-horse and 4-horse chariot races, with separate races for chariots drawn by foals. There was also a race was between carts drawn by a team of 2 mules, which was 12 laps of the stadium track.

After the horse-racing came the pentathlon, a series of five events: sprinting, long-jumping, javelin-hurling, discus-throwing, and wrestling.
The ancient Greeks considered the rhythm and precision of an athlete throwing the discus as important as his strength.

The discus was a circle shaped stone, iron, bronze, or lead. There were different sizes according to age groups. The javelin was a long wooden stick shape with spear head, similar height to that of a person. In the middle was bound a thong for a hurler's fingers to grip and guide to the correct angle it was thrown.

To Jump long distances athletes used lead or stone weights to increase the length of the jump. These weights were known as 'halteres' were held in front of the athlete during his ascent, and then swung behind his back and dropped during his descent to help propel him.

Olympics Through Time the history of the Olympic Games from the time when athletic contests were held during religious ceremonies until the First International Olympic Games in 1896

Ancient Olympics Ancient Olympics FAQs and online Q/A surveys

What is the History and Meaning of the Olympic Games an essay, by Michael Simos

Collection for the Olympic Games

OLYMPIA Project The Spirit of Ancient Olympics

ANCIENT ROME

Online College and University Degree Guide






History Learning Site > A History of Ancient Rome > Romulus and Remus

Romulus is given the credit for founding Ancient Rome – so legend has it. Children in Roman schools were taught the story and it became almost set in stone.

What is legend of Romulus and Remus?

Romulus and Remus were twin brothers. They were abandoned by their parents as babies and put into a basket that was then placed into the River Tiber. The basket ran aground and the twins were discovered by a female wolf. The wolf nursed the babies for a short time before they were found by a shepherd. The shepherd then brought up the twins.



When Romulus and Remus became adults, they decided to found a city where the wolf had found them. The brothers quarrelled over where the site should be and Remus was killed by his brother. This left Romulus the sole founder of the new city and he gave his name to it – Rome. The date given for the founding of Rome is 753 BC.

This story, of course, is only a legend. The actual growth of Rome is less exotic and interesting. The city of Rome grew out of a number of settlements that existed around seven hills that were near the River Tiber. The settlements were near the river for the obvious reasons of a water supply. The Tiber was also narrow enough at this point to be bridged. However, the area also suffered because of the nearness of the river. Each settlement was separated from the other by marshland. Each individual settlement was vulnerable to attack as a single settlement. By joining together they were stronger. To join together, the marshland had to be drained. This was something that took years to do. The legend of Romulus and Remus gives the impression that Rome was created very quickly; the truth was very different.

The early people of Rome were from a tribe called Latins. They were from the Plains of Latium. The Latins were successful farmers and traders and they became rich and successful. Therefore, Rome from its early days was a rich city. This was to create jealousy and to bring the city of Rome into conflict with areas surrounding the city. In particular, the Romans fought against the Etruscans and the Samnites.

For this reason, the leaders of Rome invested in an army. This skilled force both protected the city and expanded its power. By 300 BC, the Romans controlled most of the Italian peninsula

Roman houses were so well built, if you were rich, that many examples of Roman houses exist throughout the Roman Empire. If you were poor in Rome, you lived in simple flats or apartments - the inside of these places was symbolic of your lack of wealth. These flats were known as insulae and only contained two rooms at the most. People tended to use them only for sleeping as they had to work, visit the baths (as their flats had no running water) and they usually ate in local inns as cooking in these flats was not safe.

Rich family homes were very different. The rich lived in single-storey houses which were built around a central hall known as an atrium. Atrium had rooms opening up off of them and they were also open to the weather as they had no roofs. Many atriums had a trough built into their design so that water could be collected when it rained.




A Roman Atrium

Beyond an atrium was a second open courtyard known as a peristylum. This area included a garden and it also had rooms opening up off of it. In the homes of the wealthy, the gardens served as a meeting point so they were designed to be shady and comfortable so that people could meet in them regardless of whether the sun was fierce.

The main rooms were decorated with coloured plaster walls and, if they could be afforded, mosaics. These decorated floors were a statement of your wealth and importance. The grander mosaics had to be done by experts and they were expensive. A master mosaic craftsman would map out the picture while those who worked for him did the actual work in making a mosaic. Probably the most famous Roman mosaic in Britain is at Fishbourne Palace in West Sussex.


Mosaic at Fishbourne Palace


Ancient Rome was the largest city in the then known world. It is thought that Rome’s population was over 1 million people when the city was at the height of its power. From Rome, the heart of government beat; military decisions were taken and the vast wealth Rome earned was invested in a series of magnificent buildings.

To start with, many buildings in Rome were built around the forum. Traditionally, this had been a market place and an area where people met. Therefore, it would have been a natural place to put government buildings, temples and palaces. As Rome grew, however, the forum became more and more crowded. Therefore, a second city centre was planned and built some distance from the forum but still in Rome itself.

Rome itself had some magnificent buildings erected within the city. Some exist to this day, all be it in a less wonderful state. The most famous is probably the Colosseum where thousands of Roman citizens would gather for their entertainment – be it animals fighting or gladiators etc. Such grand buildings were constructed so that emperors would be remembered by future generations. The Colosseum was built on the orders of the Emperor Vespasian and completed when the Emperor Titus was in power. The building was finally completed in AD 80.

Rome also had numerous triumphal arches constructed throughout the city to celebrate military victories. These served a dual purpose. First, they were a celebration of the military victories the Romans had and, second, they were a reminder to the people of Rome of how powerful the army was.

As with any city, Rome had its rich and poor areas. The poor could only afford to live in wooden houses which were a serious fire risk in a hot country like Italy. On a number of occasions, Rome suffered severe damage as a result of fires starting in the city’s slums. The slums were also dangerous places to go to if you had any money as crime was very common. The Emperor Augustus created a police force to patrol the city but the poor areas remained all but untamed. However, for the influential people of Rome, this was of little importance as they never visited such areas.

Roman entertainment, like Roman roads, Roman baths, Roman villas etc, is etched in people's minds today as a result of recent films. Many people will know of the Roman gladiators, chariot racing, the Colosseum in Rome as we have a great deal of writing and other evidence about these things from the times of the Romans themselves.




Chariot racing

One of the most famous buildings in Rome is the Colosseum. This building is now a major tourist attraction on Rome. In Ancient Rome it was also a major attraction for those who wanted to see the various events that were put on at this vast building. The Colosseum could hold over 50,000 people and the viewing public were well looked after by the authorities. The temperature in Rome in the summer could be very hot and the audience at the Colosseum was protected from the sun by a huge canopy that was put over the top of the stadium when needed.


Inside the ruins of the Colosseuem

The events staged at the Colosseum were many. Nearly all of them involved death and destruction. There were the well known gladiator fights and the feeding of Christians to lions. There were also a number of lesser known events such as mock sea battles involving ships, animal circus acts, animals fighting animals and animal hunts.

All sorts of animals were kept in cages below the Colosseum. Wild cats, buffaloes, bears and elephants would all be kept and then made to fight one another. In some parts of the Roman Empire, certain animals died out because their type was in such demand by those who ran entertainment in Rome itself. It is thought that on the day the Colosseum opened, over 5,000 animals were killed.

However, animals were the secondary part of the 'show'. Those who came to the Colosseum came to see people fight. Famous gladiators had a huge following but many gladiators were the Roman equivalent of 'canon fodder' - there to entertain and be killed. Many of these gladiators were slaves or prisoners-of-war. The casualty rate per 'show' was massive - near enough 50% died each show. Those gladiators who had fought well but had not won their fight could be spared by the emperor if he was present at an event - a thumbs up meant life, and a thumbs down meant death. The Roman writer Seneca wrote that for a gladiator "the only exit is death."

These shows were usually free to the public. The emperors believed it was a good way to keep the people of Ancient Rome happy and content with the way the city was being governed. The government provided free bread and free entertainment - a combination they believed would keep happy the many unemployed people in Rome.

The Colosseum was the greatest building in Ancient Rome but much smaller amphitheatres were built in Roman Britain and gladiatorial fights may have occurred in these. Cirencester had an amphitheatre.

Chariot racing was put on at the Circus Maximus. This was equally popular with the people of Ancient Rome and going to a race was seen as a family event.

To many people today, Roman entertainment was cruel. However, not all forms of entertainment involved violence. Many educated Romans were appalled by the cruelty of the events put on at the Colosseum. They went to the theatre. However, records from the time indicate that theatres rarely put on serious works, preferring to show what we would now call farces and comedies. Poetry readings were also given in theatres.



Though mosaics could be spectacular, furniture, even in the homes of the rich, tended to be basic. Stools were common as opposed to chairs and reclining couches were used. Beds were simple affairs with 'springs' being provided by leather straps that criss-crossed a bed frame.

Houses also had water piped straight to them - unlike flats and apartments. Lead pipes brought water to a house. However, these pipes were taxed according to size - the larger the pipes, the more the tax. Archaeologists can usually tell the wealth of an owner of a Roman house by simply looking at the size of the lead pipes that brought water to that house.

Houses were also centrally heated by what was known as a hypocaust. This was under-floor heating. Slaves were charged with keeping the hypocaust both clean and alight during the day. This system of heating was also used to keep some Roman baths hot if they had no access to naturally heated water.

Some Roman villas in Britain have survived in such good condition that we have a very clear idea about how the rich lived and what their homes were like. When the Romans left Britain, it appears that some villas were covered with dirt to 'trap' into them the spirits of the Romans - thus, they could not 'escape'. In 1960, a workman found substantial ancient building rubble at Fishbourne, West Sussex, while digging a trench. In 1961 a trial excavation took place and what was essentially a complete Roman villa was found. A huge variety of Roman homes can also be found at Pompeii, of course.


Education was very important to the Ancient Romans. The rich people in Ancient Rome put a great deal of faith in education. While the poor in Ancient Rome did not receive a formal education, many still learned to read and write. Children from rich families, however, were well schooled and were taught by a private tutor at home or went to what we would recognise as schools. In general, schools as we would recognise them, were for boys only. Also, Roman schools were rarely an individual building but an extension of a shop - separated from the crowd by a mere curtain!


Boys being educated

Learning in Roman schools was based on fear. Boys were beaten for the slightest offence as a belief existed that a boy would learn correctly and accurately if he feared being caned if he got something wrong. For boys who continued to get things wrong, some schools had a policy of having pupils held down by two slaves while his tutor beat him with a leather whip.

There was not a great deal of subject choice in a Roman school. Therefore a boredom threshold must have been quickly reached by children. This must have been made worse, by the fact that the school day was longer than children now are used to. It seems likely that during the school day, a child would rise at sunrise (not wanting to be late as this would lead to a caning), work all day with a short break at lunch, and then home to be in bed by sunset for the next day. Lessons were simply learned by heart. Children did not need to know why something was right - only to know that it was right and that they would escape a beating. Lessons were also simply dictated as there were no books as they were simply too expensive.

There were two types of schools in Ancient Rome. The first type of school was for younger children aged up to 11 or 12 where they learned to read and write and to do basic mathematics. At these schools, children worked on an abacus to learn basic mathematics. For writing, they used a stylus and a wax tablet. Older children would go to more advanced schools where they did specific studies on topics such as public speaking. They would also study the writings of the great intellects of Ancient Rome such as Cicero. Girls rarely went to these schools as they were allowed to get married at the age of 12 whereas boys had to wait until they were 14 to get married.

Children worked a seven-day week - there was no break for the weekend! However, this was not as dire as it appears. There were many school holidays - religious holidays (and there were many of them) meant that children did not have to go to school. Market days also resulted in school closures and children also had a summer holiday!

In general, girls did go to school. Girls from rich families did receive an education, but this was done at home. Here they were taught how to run a good household and how to be a good wife in general - in preparation for the time they got married. Part of their education would have been music, sewing and the competent running of a kitchen.

For boys, practice made perfect. They were not allowed to write on what we would consider to be paper as it was very expensive. Boys first practised on a wax tablet. Only when they had shown that they could write well, were they allowed to write on paper - which was made on the Ancient Egyptian method of papyrus reeds. Their 'pens' were quills and their ink was a mixture of gum, soot and, sometimes, the ink from an octopus.

Trade was vital to Ancient Rome. The empire cost a vast sum of money to run and trade brought in much of that money. The population of the city of Rome was one million and such a vast population required all manner of things brought back via trade.

The Roman Empire was criss-crossed with trade routes. There were sea routes that covered the Mediterranean and Black Seas and numerous land routes using the roads built by the Romans. Trade and moving the Roman Army around were the two principle reasons for building roads.

The most important port was Ostia as it was the nearest major port to Rome itself. Ostia was situated at the mouth of the River Tiber and was only 15 miles from Rome. Many ships travelled between Ostia and the major North African city of Carthage, a journey that took between three and five days. Ships also arrived from Spain and France at Ostia. All their goods could be quickly moved to Rome itself as they were taken in barges to the city up the River Tiber after slaves had transferred the products from the merchant ships to the barges. Ironically, Ostia was to play a major part in the downfall of Rome when Alaric the Goth captured Ostia in AD 409 knowing that this would starve Rome of much needed food.

The Romans did what they could to make sea journeys safe - lighthouses were built as were safe harbours and docks. The Roman Navy did what it could to make the Mediterranean Sea safe from pirates.

The Romans made trade as easy as possible. There was only one currency used and there were no complicating customs dues. Trade was also encouraged by many years of peace within the Empire. Trade was vital to the success of the Empire. When the Empire collapsed, trade throughout the lands that had once made up the Roman Empire, also collapsed. The Mediterranean Sea became a dangerous place for merchants as there were no powers to control the activities of pirates who marauded as far north as the English Channel.

What was acquired from where?

The Romans imported a whole variety of materials: beef, corn, glassware, iron, lead, leather, marble, olive oil, perfumes, purple dye, silk, silver, spices, timber, tin and wine. The main trading partners were in Spain, France, the Middle East and North Africa.

Britain exported lead, woollen products and tin. In return, it imported from Rome wine, olive oil, pottery and papyrus. British traders relied on the Romans to provide security within the Empire. When this collapsed and Europe was seemingly overrun by Barbarians, no one could guarantee traders that their produce would get through. Also, without the power of Rome, who would be willing to buy what was produced in Britain and other parts of Europe?


The fall of Ancient Rome started from about AD 190. The Roman Empire was attacked by tribes such as the Goths and the Vandals. Civil wars in parts of the empire further weakened the rule of Rome and respect for Roman law dwindled as a result.

Why was the empire attacked by fierce tribes people? Tribes such as the Goths wanted to move south into parts of Europe that experienced a better climate that would assist their farming. This could only bring them into conflict with the Romans. At about AD 190, Rome also experienced a succession of poor emperors who simply were not capable of doing the job.

The Roman Army was spread throughout Western Europe. Each part of the army had its own idea as to who should be emperor. When one part of the army succeeded in putting its own man into the position of emperor, another part of the army would fight to put its own man in power. Between AD 211 and AD 284, there were twenty-three 'soldier-emperors' - and twenty of these men were killed by rivals! Clearly law and order and respect for that within Rome itself was at fault.

in AD 284, the emperor Diocletian realised that something had to be done or Rome and its empire would disintegrate. He decided to divide the Roman Empire in two to make it easier to rule - he created the Western Empire and the Eastern Empire, each with its own leader. This split geographically was all but a north to south divide between the empire with Spain, France, England, Italy and parts of Germany forming the Western Empire and all areas to the east of this were in the Eastern Empire.

However, Diocletian faced more than just administrative problems. More and more military defences had to be built across the whole empire. This cost money that Rome did not have. To pay for these, taxes were increased and extra coins were minted. This lead to inflation causing prices to rise. Therefore, the people of Rome were less than favourable towards those who led them.

With threats from tribes in northern Europe, financial problems in Rome itself and a civilian population becoming more and more discontented, Rome could ill afford further major issues.

In AD 307, Constantine became emperor. He ruled from AD 307 to AD 337. Constantine was Rome's first Christian emperor and he is considered to have been a strong ruler.

He believed that Rome as a city was too far away from vital areas of the empire to be of value from a governmental level. Constantine, therefore, moved the capital of the empire to a new city – Constantinople. This was a new city that was built on the old city of Byzantium. Whatever the motives were, Constantine’s decision was a poor one. Constantinople was much further east than Rome and firmly in the eastern empire. This left the western empire very vulnerable – though the eastern empire was hardly free from attacks.

The Ostrogoths attacked the western empire via the eastern empire. The Huns, a fierce tribe from Asia, attacked the western empire. The Franks, Visigoths,and Burgundians all made large inroads into the western empire.

The glory days of the Roman Army had passed and the Romans were forced into making deals with the tribes. The Vandals and Visigoths were allowed to live in the Roman Empire as long as they gave a promise to protect the empire from the Huns.

However, in AD 398, the leader of the Visigoths, Alaric, realised that the Roman Army was so thinly spread, that Rome itself was for the taking. Alaric moved cautiously south but in AD 410 he captured the city of Rome. The city was sacked. Roman held territory in Spain, France, northern Africa and England all fell to the various tribes that attacked them.


The ruins of Ancient Rome

In AD 455, Rome was attacked again. This time the damage was done by the Vandals. The city suffered serious damage. In AD 476, the last Roman emperor in the west, Romulus Augustulus, was removed from power by Odovacar, leader of the Goths. This date is usually used by historians as the year the Roman Empire ended. However, Roman rule continued in the eastern empire for a number of years after this date - in modern Greece, Turkey, the Middle East and northern Egypt.


The rich Ancient Romans enjoyed their food. Expensive food, along with a lavish villa, was an obvious way of showing off your wealth to others. If you hosted a banquet at your villa to which other Roman worthies had been invited, it had to go well if your social standing was to be maintained - hence why elaborate and expensive foods were well provided. Roast peacock and ostriches and the like, would be provided.

A different lifestyle also meant that the eating habits of the Ancient Romans were different to ours today. Breakfast (the Romans called this jentaculum) was taken in the master's bedroom and usually consisted of a slice of bread or a wheat pancake eaten with dates and honey. Wine was also drunk. Lunch (the Romans called this prandium) was eaten at about 11.00 a.m. and consisted of a light meal of bread, cheese and possibly some meat. In many senses, everything was geared up towards the main meal of the day - cena. This was eaten in the late afternoon or early evening. If the master of the house had no guests, cena might take about one hour. If he did have guests, then this meal might take as long as four hours. A light supper was usually eaten just before the Romans went to bed, consisting of bread and fruit. The Romans were usually not big meat eaters and a lot of their normal meals involved vegetables, herbs and spices together with a wheat meal that looked like porridge.

However, for a rich man's banquet anything exotic that could be purchased was served. Many meals were served with sauces. The Romans seemed to be particularly fond of sauces as it gave a cook the opportunity to make a dish seem a little bit more exciting that it may have been without the sauce. One particular favourite was garum which was made by mixing up fish waste with salt water and leaving it for several weeks until it was ready for use. By all accounts, it was a salty and highly flavored sauce. Sauces made from vinegar, honey, pepper, herbs and spices were also popular. The Romans seemed to be very keen on sweet food and drink. One of the favoured drinks was called mulsum which was a mixture of boiled wine and honey.

One sign that a meal or a banquet had gone down well was if guests asked for bags to take homes dishes that they had enjoyed. This in particular pleased a master as it showed to everyone who was there that at least some of the courses on offer had been well received.

Most food was either boiled or fried in olive oil. Very few homes needed an oven as so little food was roasted.

Two Roman meals were:
Baked dormice: "Stuff the dormice with minced pork or the meat of other dormice chopped up with herbs, pepper and pine nuts. Sew up the dormice and cook in a small oven."

A sweet: "Take the crusts from a white loaf and break the bread into largish pieces. Soak them in milk. Fry them in hot oil or fat. Pour honey over them and serve."

The writer Petronius wrote about his eating experiences in around AD 60:
"After a generous rubdown with oil, we put on dinner clothes. We were taken into the next room where we found three couches drawn up and a table, very luxuriously laid out, awaiting us.

We were invited to take our seats. Immediately, Egyptian slaves came in and poured ice water over our hands. The starters were served. On a large tray stood a donkey made of bronze. On its back were two baskets, one holding green olives, and the other black. On either side were dormice, dipped in honey and rolled in poppy seed. nearby, on a silver grill, piping hot, lay small sausages. As for wine, we were fairly swimming in it."

The History of Ancient Egypt

Paleolithic Egypt

Dynasties

Periods

Significant People

Egypt and its Neighbors

Timeline of Ancient Egyptian History

(Contains a chronological timeline of periods, dynasties, and significant people.)

A Tour of the Houses of Caesar, Mark Antony, and Cleopatra.
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Egyptian CULTURE Exhibit
Egyptian RELIGION Exhibit
Egyptian ARCHAEOLOGY Exhibit




Archaeology of Egypt History Hieroglyphs
Religion Daily Life Links
Paleolithic Egypt

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In the Paleolithic Era, the Sahara and the Nile River valleys were far different then we know it today. The Sahara did not consist of sand but rolling grass lands that sprang forth with abundant vegetation and food. This period of ample vegetation and rainfall lasted until about 30,000 BC. Then the climate began to dry up and the rolling grass lands started to recede and the food supply began to vanish. The people then made their trek to the Nile Valley with its readily available water, game, and arable land. The period marked the change from hunting and gathering to the time of farming. Additionally, this period is believed to have been much more temperate and rainy than the Nile Valley of today.

The earliest evidence for humans in Egypt dates from around 500,000 - 700,000 years ago. These hominid finds are those of Homo erectus. Early Paleolithic sites are most often found near now dried-up springs or lakes or in areas where materials to make stone tools are plentiful.

One of these sites is Arkin 8, discovered by Polish archaeologist Waldemar Chmielewski near Wadi Halfa. These are some of the oldest buildings in the world ever found. The remains of the structures are oval depressions about 30 cm deep and 2 x 1 meters across. Many are lined with flat sandstone slabs. They are called tent rings, because the rocks support a dome-like shelter of skins or brush. This type of dwelling provides a permanent place to live, but if necessary, can be taken down easily and moved. It is a type of structure favored by nomadic tribes making the transition from hunter-gatherer to semi-permanent settlement all over the world.

By the Middle Paleolithic, Homo erectus had been replaced by Homo neanderthalensis. It was about this time that more efficient stone tools were being made by making several stone tools from one core, resulting in numerous thin, sharp flakes that required minimal reshaping to make what was desired. The standardization of stone toolmaking led to the development of several new tools. They developed the lancelet spear point, a better piercing point which easily fit into a wooden shaft.

The next advancement in tool making came during the Aterian Industry which dates around 40,000 BC. The Aterian Industry improved spear and projectile points by adding a notch on the bottom of the stone point, so it could be more securely fastened to the wooden shaft. The other breakthrough in this period is the invention of the spear-thrower, which allowed for more striking power and better accuracy. The spear-thrower consisted of a wooden shaft with a notch on one end where the spear rested. The development of the spear-thrower allowed for increased efficiency in hunting large animals. They hunted a wide variety of animals such as the white rhinoceros, camel, gazelles, warthogs, ostriches, and various types of antelopes.

The Khormusan Industry, which overlapped the Aterian Industry, started some time between 40,000 and 30,000 BC. The Khormusan Industry pushed advancement even farther by making tools from animal bones and ground hematite, but they also used a wide variety of stone tools. The main feature that marks the Khormusan Industry is their small arrow heads that resemble those of Native Americans. The use of bows by the Aterian and Khormusan industries is still questioned; to date there is no set proof that they used bow technology.

During the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic around 30,000 BC, the pluvial conditions ended and desertification overtook the Sahara region. People were forced to migrate closer to the Nile River valley. Near the Nile, new cultures and industries started to develop. These new industries had many new trends in their production of stone tools, especially that of the miniaturization and specialization.

The Sebilian Industry that followed the Khotmusan Industry added little advancement to tool making, and some aspects even went backwards in tool making. The Sebilian Industry is known for their development of burins, small stubby points. They started by making tools from diorite, a hard igneous rock which was widely found in their environment. Later on they switched over to flint which was easier to work.

The Sebilian Industry did coexist with another culture called the Silsillian Industry which did make significant advancements in tool technology. The Silsillians used such blades as truncated blades and microliths. The truncated blades are made for one specific task and are of irregular shape. The microliths are small blades used in such tools as arrows, sickles, and harpoons. The micro blade technology was most likely used because of the small supply of good toolmaking stone, such as diorite and flint.

The Qadan Industry was the first to show major signs of intensive seed collection and other agriculturally similar techniques. They used such tools as sickles and grinding stones. These tools show that by this time people had developed the skills for plant-dependent activities. The use of these tools astonishingly vanished around 10,000 BC for a small period of time, perhaps as a result of climatic change. This resulted in hunting and gathering returning as the adaptive strategy.

Beginning after 13,000 BC, cemeteries and evidence of ritual burial are found. Skeletons were often decorated with necklaces, pendants, breast ornaments and headdresses of shell and bone.

The Epipaleolithic Period dates between 10,000 - 5,500 BC and is the transition between the Paleolithic and the Predynastic periods in ancient Egypt. During this time, the hunter-gatherers began a transition to the village-dwelling farming cultures.

The Nile Valley of the Paleolithic was much larger then it is today, its annual flooding made permanent habitation of its floodplain impossible. As the climate became drier and the extent of the flooding was reduced, people were able to settle on the Nile floodplain. After 7000 BC, permanent settlements were located on the floodplain of the Nile. These began as seasonal camps but become more permanent as people began to develop true agriculture.

References:

Egypt: Complete Guide for Travel, Ancient & Modern Egypt. http://www.touregypt.net/index.htm, InterCity Oz, Inc., 1999-2003.

Hall, H. R. The Ancient History of the Near East. Methuen & CO., London. 1913.

Hoffman, Michael A. Egypt Before the Pharaohs. Alfred A. Knopf Inc, New York. 1984.

James, T. G. H. An Introduction to Ancient Egypt. Harper & Row, New York. 1979.

Written By Mitch Oachs and Nathan Bailey, 2002


Dynasties of Ancient Egypt

Dynasties

The unification of Egypt began with the First Dynasty. It also marked the beginning of Egyptian history, for it was the time when hieroglyphic writing in Egypt became standardized. Little is known about the First or Second Dynasty due to the ravages of wars and of time. Many of the comments regarding the early Pre-dynastic Periods can be used for both the first dynasty and the second.

Architecture of the First Dynasty evolved from simple structures of wood, reeds and mud, to larger, more complicated buildings of brick and later of stone. During the First Dynasty, the traditions of wood structures had a strong influence on the later buildings constructed of brick and stone. Mat and reed textures are imitated on many stone walls giving a distinctly Egyptian character to the architecture. In addition, Egyptian sculpture was quite distinct and elaborate.
The Second Dynasty, maintained the war records of raids into Nubia. None of the raid efforts were large scale or resulted in permanent conquest, but they are indicative of a desire for the wealth of Nubia. Another large exploit of the Egyptians during the Second Dynasty is the shift of a power center from Abydos to Memphis. This shift, due largely in part to resources, could also possibly have been due to the cult of the Sun god Ra beginning during this period, and also due to a want for greater political control by the king. By the end of the 2nd Dynasty an end to political opposition of north and south established a basic economic, religious and political system, which lasted well into dynasties to come, and paved the way for the more affluent Third Dynasty.
The Pharaohs of the Third Dynasty were the first to have actual pyramids constructed as shrines to their deaths. Although crude, these step pyramids were the predecessors to the later Pyramids of Giza and others. The first of these pyramids was designed by Imhotep for Dzoser. Prior to, and during the construction of the step pyramids, rulers were buried in a structure called Mastaba. The Mastaba were non-pyramidal shaped structures which did not contain walls or stone art and closely resembled burial mounds, with long shafts leading down into the tomb area.

Sanakhte and Dzoser, the first two Pharaohs of this Dynasty, began exploitation of the Sinai Peninsula, which was rich in turquoise and copper. Little else was done by the kings during this dynasty
It was during the Fourth Dynasty when the Great Pyramids of Giza and many other structures were constructed. Many of the original pyramids still remain today, such as the Mastaba structures and the Pyramid of Miedum.

snefrupyramidmeidium.gif (31362 bytes) The earliest known pyramid structure is that of the Pyramid of Meidum. There are two theories as to the pyramids construction. One states that the pyramid was started by Huni, Snefer's predecessor, the other that it was began and ended with Sneferu. Whatever the case, the reign of Sneferu went on to produce two more pyramids after Meidum. Meidum, however, was not always in it's rough state as is seen in the picture at left. As is evidenced by graffiti on the outside of the pyramid, the pyramid survived well into the time of the 18th Dynasty. Meidum still stands as a great attempt, if not a triumph of Egyptian architecture. Other pyramids constructed during the time of the Fourth Dynasty include, the Pyramid of Djeddefre, (created by the son of the Pharaoh Khufu), The Pyramids of Giza, The Sphinx, and many many other tombs, temples and pyramids.
Dynasty V

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The Pharaoh of this Dynasty was Sahure.

The 5th Dynasty began in 2465 B.C.E. and ended in 2325 B.C.E.., spanning approximately 140 years during the period known as the Old Kingdom. The Pharaohs that ruled during this Dynasty were:

2498 – 2491 Userkaf – Brother to Sahure and possibly Neferirkare Kakai. He elevated to great importance the cult of Re, god of the sun. His marriage to Khentkaues, a descendant of the main branch of the royal family in the 4th dynasty ended dynastic struggles that rival branches had caused during the 4th dynasty. His queen held a prominent position and had her own tomb, known as the unfinished pyramid, built at Giza .

2487 – 2477 Sahure – Brother of Userkaf and possibly Neferirkare Kakai. Early records indicate that he traded outside the Nile Valley with Punt.

2477 – 2467 Neferirkare Kakai – May have also been brother to Sahure and Userkaf. There was evidence found linked to his reign that show well-developed accounting methods and record keeping regarding the redistribution of goods and materials between the royal residence, temples, and officials who held priesthoods.

2467 – 2460 Shepseskare Isi

2460 – 2453 Neferefre

2453 – 2422 Nyuserre Ini – He is best known for his temple to the sun-god Re at Abu Jirab in Lower Egypt. Located near the sun temple, Nyuserre’s burial place is smaller in height and length than the sun temple indicating the unusual prominence of the cult of re during this dynasty.

2422 – 2414 Menkauhor Kaiu

2414 – 2375 Djedkare Isesi

2375 – 2345 Unas – Pyramid Texts, which relate to the fate of a king in the afterlife, were found in his pyramid.

Worship of the sungod peaked during this dynasty. The last 3 pharaohs did not have personal names compounded with “Re”, the name of the sungod. There was a slight shift away from the solar cult that may be linked to the rise of Osiris, god of the dead.

For the first time, high officials were chosen from outside the royal family. To secure their positions, these officials sometimes married royal princesses. They depended on the king and used their position for their own agenda. They and the king often appropriated much of the country's surplus for their own benefit.

While the pyramids from this period were smaller and less solid, carvings found from mortuary temples are well preserved and of excellent quality. The end of their dynasty saw some officials with strong local ties begin to move their tombs into the Nile Valley and the Delta, symbolizing the growing independence from the royal control.

References:

Ruffle, John. The Egyptians. Ithica, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977.

“Egypt.” Encyclopedia Brittanica http://search.eb.com/bol/topic?artcl=106015&seq_nbr=7&page=p&isctn=10 11 Sept. 2000.

Cheryl Dawley
Dynasty VI

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During this Dynasty, General Weni gave the army an organizational foundation which lasted well into the New Kingdom. This new army was built around a core of veterans which led to the development of a military caste. Weni was the first person,other than the pharaoh, to be depicted in Egyptian Art.

During the early part of Pepi I's reign, the nobles outside his court began to have great influence and wealth in the political relations of Ancient Egypt. They built fine tombs for themselves and often times boasted of their good relations with the king. Pepi I, however, was not a pharaoh free from problems. One of Pepi I's wives, Weret-Imtes, attempted to take the throne from him. Pepi I, was also an avid builder of pyramids, and went on many expeditions to bring back fine stones for such large scale projects.

Pepi I's brother was Pepi II, the youngest and longest reigning Egyptian king in history. His reign began after his brother's Pepi I's ended which he assumed at the age of eight. Over all, his reign over Egypt was not terribly beneficial to the country. During Pepi II's reign, power mildly shifted from the pharaoh to the nomarchs. Pepi II, often gave gifts to the nomarch's which increased their treasures, but depleted the treasury of the pharaoh. It is in this light, that the interests of the nomarchs, as well as the threat of foreign interests, accelerated the eventual collapse of the 6th Dynasty. After Pepi II's death, the central government collapsed, and the Old Kingdom ended.

nightpyramid.jpg (20798 bytes) The collapse of the centralized government greatly influenced Egyptian Art and further changed the way in which Egyptians viewed their gods. During prior dynasties, the Pharaoh and his nomarchs had already decided most of the policies of the state. Towards the end of the dynasty, the change of power from the Pharaoh to the nomarchs and other nobles greatly influenced all aspects of Egyptian culture. As a result of such changes, many of the sculptures of the time show the gods and their pharaoh's in a more human light, perhaps suggesting that the gods were more transcendental in the universe than earlier thought.

The role of the pharaoh also seems to be an area of controversy during this era. The pharaoh, Pepi II, in some sculptures, is depicted in stone, as holding most of the tools and markings ascribed to Osirius, as a living god. Most pharaohs near the end of the Sixth Dynasty were represented in such a way. However, Pepi I's statue, suggests a different aspect. Rather than being regarded as a god, the pharaoh takes on the role of a son to the gods, lessening both his power and possibly the ties of the priesthood over the government of the state.
Some books about this time period mention that there may have been 70 kings in 70 days. This was undoubtedly a fictitious dynasty meant to show the instability of this period. It might have been a Memphite Dynasty.
There were approximately 17 or 18 kings during this dynasty which lasted about 20 years. There were two kings that we know of, Wadjkare and Qakare Iby. The former left behind royal exemption decrees and the later, a small pyramid. During this dynasty in Coptos (located in Upper Egypt) there was a series of decrees that indicate that the 8th Dynasty kings were confirming administrative positions in the government and temples.
This dynasty was also known as the Herakleopolis Dynasty because the rulers controlled lower Egypt from Herakleopolis. This dynasty is also often called the "House of Khety" because many of the ruler's names were Khety, but it is considered to be fairly unstable due to frequent changes in rulers. The Herakleopolitans expelled Asiatic immigrants from the Nile delta and fortified the eastern border of Egypt. This dynasty was responsible for establishing the importance of Memphis. The Herakleopolitans improved irrigation works, reopened trade with Byblos, and began the "Coffin Texts". One of the kings wrote the "Instruction to Merikara." They also had frequent outbreaks of fighting against the Thebans north of Abydos. Eventually they were conquered by the Thebans and this marked the end of the Herakleopolis Dynasty and the beginning of the Middle Kingdom.
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This dynasty began in Thebes with Intef who was a nomarch and a priest. After gaining control, they began to get into small, frequent fights with the Herakleopolitans during the 9th and 10th Dynasties. The skirmishes took place generally north of Abydos. Eventually the Thebans conquered the Herakleopolitans under Mentuhotep I(or II) Nebhetepre. Mentuhotep ruled Upper and Lower Egypt from Thebes. He ordered the building of several temples including the mortuary complex at Deir el-Bahari. The dynasty is noted for building statues and temples and marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. The 11th Dynasty sent trading and other expeditions to acquire raw materials and trade items. Amenemhet, vizier and Governor of the region south of Mentuhotep III, overthrew the king and established the 12th Dynasty.
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The 12th Dynasty started with the removal of Mentuhotep IV from the throne and Amenemhet I's ascension. The kings of this dynasty built pyramids similar to the ones built during the Old Kingdom; however, they were a bit smaller. The Faiyum was exploited for the cultivation of crops and much building went on during this dynasty's rule. The second king of this dynasty, Senusret I, built a series of 13 forts down to the Second Cataract to help protect Egypt from invaders.

Although generally a peaceful time, there were several expeditions sent out to increase the borders of Egypt and in some cases to subdue rebellions. There was a significant amount of trading during this time as is evident by artifacts that originate outside of Egypt. Also there were a number of artifacts that originated from Egypt recovered from the tombs of princes outside of Egypt. This indicates that there was a peaceful foreign policy during much of the 12th Dynasty.
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During this period, there were 10 kings which lasted for approximately 70 years. They ruled from It-tawy near the Faiyum. Near the end of the dynasty another dynasty, the 14th Dynasty, emerged and appears to have controlled the western delta. This dynasty eventually collapsed when the Hyksos invaded from the east.
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This obscure dynasty known as the Xios and was ruled from the western delta for 57 years. It produced two known kings and had just begun its existance at the end of the 13th dynasty.

This was the Hyksos Dynasty which ruled from Avaris in the eastern delta. This dynasty was started when an Asiatic group invaded Egypt and began pacifying Lower Egypt. They were held up by the city of Thebes which would not ally with the Hyksos. The Hyksos Dynasty lasted through the 13th and 14th Dynasties.

The Hyksos brought many innovations to the Egyptians. A new loom was introduced and new irrigation methods were introduced. Peaceful relations existed for some time until the Hyksos King Apophis I insulted Seqenenre Tao and started a full-scale war. The war ended when Kamose defeated the Hyksos by capturing Avaris and sent the Hyksos fleeing into Palestine.

This dynasty is characterized by minor kings who ruled in the shadow of the 15th Dynasty and produced two known rulers. The two rulers are known from the scarabs found in northern Egypt and southern Palestine

This was a Theban Dynasty which continued the culture of the Middle Kingdom. It coexisted with the 15th Dynasty until Seqenenre Tao began to fight against the Hyksos. Kamose, the son of Seqenenre Tao, eventually drove out the Hyksos which marks the end of the 17th Dynasty. Kamose's younger brother, Ahmose I, becomes King of Upper and Lower Egypt and begins the 18th Dynasty, the New Kingdom.

Dynasty XVIII

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In the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Egypt was a unified and wealthy state ruled by a god-king. It had a semitropical climate, creating a large agricultural surplus. Papyrus grew wild and was used for building materials, food and paper. Even the desert provided useful goods such as salt, natron, other minerals, semiprecious stones and gold. Egypt had a highly organized government that was run by the scribal class, who were organized and carried out the details of the business of the state. They knew how to read and write and also had knowledge of the specific position they were to inherit, such as knowledge in agriculture.

The majority of the people were farmers. During the period of inundation, the three months when the fields were flooded, they participated in corvee. The farmers became a national labor force, which built and maintained large-scale public buildings. There was also a smaller group of nomadic cattle herders. Families were the basic social unit in Ancient Egypt, with groups of families forming villages. The people of Ancient Egypt followed a hereditary calling, and the whole family shared in the work. The army was the only place for people to step out of the caste system and achieve importance. The horse drawn chariot was also introduced during this period.
Rise of Imperial Egypt 1570-1436 B.C.E.

Important events occurring during this time period are the capture of Avaris, the Hyksos stronghold near Tanis and the expulsion of the foreigner from Egypt. The policy of safeguarding frontiers through large-scale raiding expeditions was also developed. By the time Tuthmosis III became ruler, Egypt was mainly a prosperous and well organized state. He fought problems in the North and made a rich empire in Palestine and Syria.
Golden Age of Imperial Egypt 1436-1358 B.C.E.

During this period, Thebes became the main residence city of Egypt, which advanced the fortunes of Amen the city god. Amen attained a position of great wealth and influence. Under Tuthmosis IV, Aten, a new god, appears and his cult becomes a fashionable court religion.
Amarna Revolution 1375-1358 B.C.E.

Amen-hetep and his queen Nefert-iti are fanatically devoted to Aten, and Amen-hetep changes his name to Akhenaten. He also founds a new city for Aten at the present day El-Amarna and moves his court there. Other cults were discouraged and changes in the Aten doctrine favor monotheism. Problems begin to occur during his reign. There is unrest in the northern empire, which leads to a reduced flow of valuable tribute and disgruntled soldiers. Temples were closed putting many out of work. Also, forbidding sacrifices and rituals demoralized people and took away the purpose to every day activities. The people did not like the new religion being imposed on them.
Amarna Aftermath 1358-1315 B.C.E.

The new king, Tut-ankh-aten is only nine years old, and advisers probably governed the country, especially the Vizier Ay and Commander in Chief Horemheb. They immediately returned to the traditions of the reign of Amen-hetep III. Tut-ankh-aten changed his name to Tut-ankh-amen and the cults of the old gods were restored. Ay became king by marrying Tut-ankh-amen's widows. When he disappeared, Horemheb became king and worked on restoring law and order to an impoverished and demoralized Egypt.
References:

Aldred, Cyril. Ankhenaten, Pharaoh of Egypt-a new study. .. Mcgraw-Hill Book Company. New York-Toronto-London-Sydney. 1968.

Aldred, Cyril. New Kingdom Art in Ancient Egypt During the Eighteenth Dynasty. Alec Tiranti Ltd. London. 1961.

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The Nineteenth Dynasty started in about 1320 B.C.E. with the reign of Ramesses I. It continued through the reigns of Sethos I, Ramesses II, and lastly, Merneptah. At the start of the Nineteenth Dynasty, Ramesses I and Sethos I continued with Horemheb’s (Eighteenth Dynasty) work of picking up the pieces of Egypt’s damaged pride caused greatly during the Eighteenth Dynasty. The restoration of Egypt’s temples and gods and the authority of Egypt in Nubia and western Asia were accomplished during this dynasty. The most notable product of these efforts were the restoration of the national shrine of Amun in Nubia and the construction of a temple to Osiris at Abydos. The facts about the end of the Nineteenth Dynasty are unclear. It is believed that the country fell into decline and further into a state of anarchy.

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The move of power and control from Upper Egypt to Lower Egypt, reflected in the founding of cities in the eastern Delta by kings in the later 19th and 20th Dynasties, made the division of Egypt complete. After Ramesses the XI died in 3020 B.C.E., Smendes proclaimed himself king, ruling from the Delta.

Smendes died in 2943 B.C.E. and the brief interlude before the accession of Pseusennes I in 2939 B.C.E. was filled by Amenemnisu, a son of Herihor and Nodimet. Civil war still raged in the Theban area, and a number of the dissidents were exiled to the western oases, then held by Libyan chiefs. A black granite stele in the Louvre records the banishment of these people. Strangely, they were subsequently permitted to return under an octancular decree from Amun. It all seems to be part of a plan between the North and South, the secular and the religious fractions. This rapprochement was set in motion by the next king, Psusemes I, in allowing the marriage of his daughter Isiemkleb to the High Priest Menkheperre.

Between the reigns of Amenemope and Siamun there seems to have been a ruler called Aakheperie Setepenre, usually referred to as Osorkon the Elder, who may have reigned for up to 6 years, but the evidence is scanty.

Siamun who came to the throne in about 978 B.C.E. reigned for almost 20 years. He is chiefly represented by his extensive building work in the Delta, at Piramesse, but principally at Tanis where he enlarged the temple of Amun. His name, however, is also very prevalent at Thebes, where it occurs several times with different regional years on the bandages used in the rewrapping of a number of the later royal mummies from the Bier-el-Bahari cache of 1881(DB 320).

The little light that is thrown on the 21st Dynasty comes largely from the biblical record, since the period coincides with the struggle of David in Israel to unite the tribes and destroy the Philistines, exemplified initially in the story of David and Goliath. Siamun obviously kept a watching brief on the near Eastern situation and Egypt was able to interfere from time to time to protect her own interests and trade routes.

There evidently was a change in the Egyptian view of marriages. There had been a steady stream of foreign princesses coming to the Egyptian court but the process was slightly reversed, with Egyptian princesses marrying out: one princess married Sadal, the crown prince of the Kingdom of Edom, when he took refuge in Egypt after succumbing to David's attacks.

An Egyptian campaign in which Gezer was seized from the weakened Philistines is recorded in the Old Testament. Solomon had succeeded his father David and an Egyptian alliance was sealed by Solomon's marriage to an Egyptian princess. The end of the Dynasty came with Psusenness II, whose reign lasted 14 years, is little known. His successor Sheshong I, the founder of the 22nd Dynasty married Maarkare, Psusenne's daughter, thus forging another dynastic marriage tie.

The 22nd Dynasty is often referred to as the Libyan Bubastite Dynasty. Manetho lists the kings of this Dynasty as being from Bubastis which is located in the eastern delta. The Libyan element is evident in the founder, Sheshonq I, who inaugurated the sequence of Libyan Chiefs which ruled Egypt for the next 200 years. Sheshonq himself allied by marriage as the son-in-law of his predecessor Pseusennes II, had the strength of the military behind him as the commander-in-chief of all the armies of Egypt. Sheshonq was a strong ruler who brought the divided factions of Thebes and Tanis together into a once more united Egypt.

Following the death of Solomon in 930 B.C.E., the kingdom of Judah and Israel began to be ruled by Rehoboam, Solomon's son, and Jeroboam I afterward. This governmental reign was prime for Egyptian military intervention. In 925 B.C.E., in a highly successful campaign, the like of which had not been seen since the days of Ramesses III in the 20th Dynasty, they were defeated. He moved first against Judah, arriving before the walls of Jerusalem, held by Rehoboam. The city was surrounded but Sheshonq was bought off from entering it by being given the treasures of the House of the Lord and the treasures of the kings house. All of Solomon's treasures, except the most sacred and emotive Ark of the Covenant, fell to Sheshonq. Pharaoh then turned his attentions to Israel, pursuing his earlier protégé Jeroboam, who fled over the Jordan River. Finally, Sheshonq halted at Megiddo, the scene of Tuthmosis III's victory 500 years before, and erected a victory Stele in the manner of his predecessors.

Osokon I, who succeeded his father, continued to provide strong patronage for the various leading priesthoods, thereby consolidating his position as well as maintaining a continuous building program, especially at his native city of Bubastis. The chief priesthood of Amun at Karnak was taken from his brother Input and given to one of his sons, Sheshonq(II) whom he took as a co-regent in 890 B.C.E. Sheshonq, however, died a few months earlier than his father, and both were buried at Tanis.

The successor was Takelot I, another son of Osokon by a minor wife. This reign, although 15 years in length, has left no major monuments, but saw the beginning of the fragmentation of Egypt once more into two power bases.

Osokon II succeeded Takelot I as pharaoh in 874 B.C.E. at much the same time that his cousin Harsiese succeeded his father (Sheshonq III) as High Priest of Amun at Karnak. Problems arose in year 4 of Osokon II when Harsiese declared himself king in the South. Although he was only king in name, when Harsiese died Osokon II consolidated his own position by appointing one of his sons, Nimlot, as High Priest at Karnak and another son, Sheshonq, as High Priest of Ptah at Memphis. Osokon II thereby had the two major priesthoods of Egypt in his families grasp as a political more rather than from any religious motivation.

Takelot II succeeded his father Osorkon II in 850 and maintained stability in the South where his half brother Nimlot had consolidated his position by extending North to Herakleopolis and placing his son Ptahwedjankhef in charge there. Nimlot then married his daughter Karomama II to Takelot II, thereby cementing a bond between North and South and becoming the father-in-law of his half brother.

The Crown Prince, Osorkon, never succeeded to the throne because his younger brother Sheshonq moved to seize power, proclaiming himself pharaoh as Sheshonq III with a reign of 53 years.

Harsiese reappeared as Chief High Priest of Amun, apparently without too much commotion at Thebes because Sheshonq had let the Thebans have their own way and choice. In 806 B.C.E., the usurped Prince Osorkon was appointed to the High Priests' post at Thebes. Unusually, he had not been disposed of by his usurping younger brother. Then in 800 B.C.E. Harsiese once again assumed the office of High Priest, only to disappear, maybe dead. Prince Osorkon had not died when Harsiese returned to power and was still evident in Upper Egypt with a controlling hand for another 10 years.

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The twenty-third dynasty was part of a confusing period of overlapping dynasties including the twenty-first on through to the twenty-fifth dynasties respectively. It was a dynasty marked by Libyan control. It was started by Shoshenk I, an energetic soldier of Libyan descent. Shoshenk’s forbearers were the captives/ mercenaries under Ramses III used to stem the tide of barbarian incursions plaguing Egypt at the time. Not only were the Sea Peoples encroaching on Egypt’s borders, but also Shashank’s fellow Libyans. Shashank’s rise to power was aided by the fact that Middle Egypt was a no-man’s land. It was this that opened the door for Libyan ascension. They seized this area and made their capital in Bubastis. At this time Shoshenk took care to legitimize his claim to the throne for his successor by marrying his son to the daughter of Psousennes II. Shaoshenk knew that to keep power he had to gain wealth. He did this by exploiting the break up of the Palestinian government after the death of Solomon. Shoshenk attacked Judah, the weaker of the two and sacked Jerusalem. It was with this brief yet rich conquest that further secured Libyan dominance. This dominance, which spanned from 950- 730 B.C.E. was brought down when the Nubian king, Piankhi, invaded Egypt fearing further consolidation of power would challenge his growing countries strength. This invasion brought about the twenty-fifth dynasty and a close to Libyan dominance in Egypt.
Bibliography

Erman, Adolf. Life in Ancient Egypt. Benjamen Blom; New York, 1969.

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Tefnakht, the king of Sais in the Delta, attempted to put a stop to an invasion by organizing a coalition of northern kings that included Osorkon IV of Tanis, Peftjauabastet of Hernopolis, Nimlot, Input of Leontopolis and Tefnakht who became the first of the only two kings of the 24th Dynasty. The other was Bakenrenef, better known in Greek Myth as the Bocchoris who tangled with Herakles. Tefnakht reigned for approximately eight years and Bakenrenef for six years.

The confederation of northern rulers enjoyed a certain success in that the Nubian King, Piankhi, allowed them to come south. The two forces met at Herakleopolis and Tefnakht and were compelled to retreat to Hernopolis where he and the other kings of the coalition surrendered to Piankhi.. All four kings were then allowed to continue as governors of their respective cities, a policy which centuries later Alexander the Great was to find effective in his world conquest

The 25th Dynasty lasted from 730 - 661 B.C.E.

Shabaka succeeded his brother Piankhi in 710 B.C.E. and moved his capital from Napata to Thebes. He battled with the Assyrian Empire and his nephew Taharka, but lost Egypt in 661 B.C.E.

With the breakdown of Egyptian sovereignty in Egypt, the Nubian Kings began to look north. They viewed their incursions into Egypt, in part, as a restoration of the old status quo and supremacy of Amun. Piankhi moved north against the coalition of four Egyptian Kings in year 21 of his Nubian reign.

Piankhi was succeeded by his brother, Shabakawh, who continued the revival of old traditions. After a 14 year reign Shabaka died, he was succeeded, each in turn by his nephews Shibilku and Tahaarqa.

Taharka succeeded his brother, Shibiku, as Pharaoh in 690 B.C.E., bringing his son, Esachaddon, to the throne. Taharqa had not shared power with his predecessor Shabada, but in 665 B.C.E. he recognized his cousin Tanutamun,as his heir and co-regent, and died the next year.

The 26th Dynasty was part of the Late Kingdom. It started in 664 B.C.E. with the death of Nekau I and continued on through the Psammetichus III, or Psamtik III, in 525 B.C.E. During this Dynasty, Psamtik I expelled the Assyians and began what is now known as the 26th Egyptian Dynasty. At the close of this period, the Persians occupied the country.
by Matt Bune

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Darius III, considered by many to be somewhat of a good natured weakling, assumed the throne in 336 B.C.E. Darius III, the last Persian king, was assassinated by his own men in 330 B.C.E.

This dynasty was founded by Nephrites I who moved the capital from Sais to the more centrally placed Mendes. There was much more writing and art produced during this time than during previous dynasties. Under Achoris, the second king of this dynasty, a great deal of building and refurbishing took place, something not found in later dynasties. They conducted campaigns against the Persians during this time. Also, at the same time, the Greeks and the Egyptians made a treaty. When the Persians declared that the Greek cities could remain as autonomous cities, and their war ended, the now isolated Egyptians became the focus of their attacks.

This dynasty began with trouble as Nectanebo I fought off a combined Persian/Greek attack. After that, his reign was long and stable and that stability was passed to Teos who created a large army which included Greek mercenaries and began attacking the Persians. Teos was replaced by Nectanebo II. Most of his reign was without conflict, but there was a Persian attack at the end which he was able to defeat.

With all the Pharaohs of this dynasty, we see a return to the old ways, refurbishing temples and creation of new temples, advances in art and an increase in literature. When Dynasty XXX ended with the death of Nectanebo II, the Persians took over. This was the last time Egyptians would rule Egypt for over two milleniums.

Dynasty XXXI, the second Persian Dynasty, was only a decade long. There appears to have been a great deal of internal strife, with both Artaxerxes III and Arses being killed off by their successors. This Dynasty squandered most of Egypt's treasures before Alexander came to power.


Dynasty XXXI, the second Persian Dynasty, was only a decade long. There appears to have been a great deal of internal strife, with both Artaxerxes III and Arses being killed off by their successors. This Dynasty squandered most of Egypt's treasures before Alexander came to power.


The arrival of the Macedonians marked the end of political autonomy of Egypt. Egypt's new rulers, Alexander and the Ptolemies, tipped the balance of world power firmly towards the west. They preserved the basic framework of Egyptian society, while they operated according to the rules of their own culture. Alexander and the Greeks had the same problem as the Persians, the empire was so extensive that they could not rule the whole entity according to the same set of laws. In order to insinuate the Greeks into Egypt's theocratic method of government, Alexander was obliged to seek the assistance of the very fixture that had supported the pharaohs: the priesthood. Slowly the Greco/Roman culture began to replace the Egyptian cultural milieu.


LATE EGYPT:
Late Predynastic

(3,500 - 3,300 B.C.E.)

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The Late Predynastic Period, (also called Gerzean period or Naqada II) is known as the most important predynastic culture in Egypt. Although the center of the development was the same as that of Amratian (or Naqada I), Gerzean culture slowly spread throughout Egypt.

The Late Predynastic Period is best characterized by the discovery of the el-Gerza Culture providing a third predynastic phase and a second stage of the Naqada period. Kawm al-Ahmar, Naqada, and Abydos are the large sites developed during Naqada II period. They had large settlement areas with increasing division of wealth and status.

Social stratification is evident from the burials of this time. The rich were buried in tombs lined with mud brick, while the poor were buried in oblong tombs with one-sided ledges to hold funerary offerings. Tombs of people in the upper class were bigger and richer than those of the middle class. Regional political leaders can be easily identified by their "chieftains's tombs'' at different sites.

Compared with the pharonic civilization, the Gerzean culture reached a stage of development that was already well advanced, especially in its funeral and religious rituals. Gerzean tombs had become virtual replicas of earthly dwellings; sometimes they comprised several profusely furnished rooms. There were amulets, figurines and ceremonial objects decorated with thematic scenes of animals (lions, bulls, cattle, hippopotami and falcons) which are known to have represented various gods from a very early period in Egyptian history.

By Naqada II (also called Nakada II or Naqadah II) Period, bigger and more practical river ships were made, and the trade along the Nile River was flourishing. Egyptian boats changed from crafts made of reed bundles to ships made of wood planks. There is evidence of intense trade with the Near East. Ma'adi was a center of trade with the Near East and there were a wide range of settlement that presumably played a role of intermediary to transport goods to the south.

Imports of lapis lazuli tell us that their trading went as far as Badakhshan in Afghanistan. Lapis lazulis was traded across land and by ocean via the Persian Gulf to Sumer. Evidence of a brief period of either direct or indirect contact with cultures in Mesopotamia during the late Gerzean time was found. Some of the influence from Southwestern Asia can be seen from pottery paralleled in Mesopotamia and Palestine, seal stones with Mesopotamian motifs-interlacing ophidians, master of animals, griffin with wings, and the complex niched-facade mud brick architecture paralleled in Sumer where it was used for the decoration of the temples of the gods.

The major difference between the Amatian and the Gerzean lay in their ceramic production. The decoration of Gerzean pottery was more developed with the use of stylized motifs including geometrical representations of flora and more naturalistic depictions of fauna and other aspects of their culture.

Gerzean culture was introduced into Egypt by the "Eastern Desert Folk,'' who invaded and governed Egypt while the Amratian white-lined pottery was brought by "Libyan invasions.'' Gerzean culture is characterized by a buff-coloured pottery with pictorial decorations in dark red paint, use of an abrasive tubular drill for stonecutting, pear-shaped mace-heads and ripple-flacked flint knives and an advanced metallurgy.

During the Gerzean period, pottery was mass-produced and was of very good quality. Unusual animal motifs drawn on the Gerzean pottery, such as ostriches and ibexes tell us that Gerzean people went to hunt in the sub-desert since those animals could not be found near the Nile River. The donkey was the only locally domesticated animal that was portrayed as tame in the late Predynastic art.

Gazelle herding and the domestication of sheep and dogs are found in the Gerzean along with cattle and pigs. The dwarf goat was found at the Gerzean site of Tukh and Esh-Shaheinab. The ancient indigenous way of hunting, fishing and utilizing wild plants supported the subsistence economy of Egypt until late Predynastic Period. However, population increase affected the distribution of plants and animals in the desert. In the late predynastic period, elephants, giraffes and ostriches seem to have vanished from the desert and floodplain.

Writing was most likely not brought into Egypt, but may have began during this period with representations on the Naqada pottery. This pottery apparently charts gradual stylization of the plants, animals and religious dances depicted, eventually resulting in a set of divine symbols that are virtually hieroglyphic signs. These Naqada pictures reflect a fundamental principle throughout Egyptian history: the combination of pictograms and phonograms.

In the later Gerzean period, there is evidence of increased political activity and the general opinion is that a struggle for predominance now developed between Upper and Lower Egypt. In both regions, the basic unit of government was the local community clustered around a town or group of villages and was under the greater control of a local variant of one of the universal gods, and looking for leadership to some powerful headman.

REFERENCES:

Silverman, David P.ed. Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Trigger, B.G., et al. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

(Untitled) ANCIENT EGYPT. The University of Texas: Anthropology Course.

http://www.dla.utexas.edu/depts/anthro/courses/97fall/denbow304/WEEK11.HTML October 4, 2000.Dynastic Race. NUNKI.NET: The Official David Rohl Wed.

http://www.nunki.net/PerDud/TheWorks/Express/DynasticRace.html October 4, 2000."Egypt.'' Egypt World. (1998 -2000).

http://egyptworld.8k.com/closeegypt.html October 4, 2000."Egypt History.'' newafrica.com: Africa's Information Provider. (2000).

http://www.newafrica.com/history/egypt/ancient%20egypt.htm October 4, 2000."Egypt History - Predynastic Period.'' Official Internet Site of: The Ministry of Tourism, Egypt -The Egyptian Tourist Authority. (2000 -2004).

http://touregypt.net/ebph5.htm October 4, 2000.``Encyclopdia Britannica (Egypt).'' (1999 - 2000).

http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/printable/0/0,5722,115550,00.html October 4, 2000.``Gerzean Culture -Britannica.com.'' (1999 -2000).

http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/4/0,5716,37324+1+36613,00.htmlquery=gerzean%20culture October 4, 2000.``Naqada II Other Objects.'' Museum of Ancient Cultures. (1997-1999).

http://www.museum.mq.edu.au/eegypt2/naqada2a.html October 4, 2000. "pre/early dynastic egypt.'' The University of Texas: Archaeology.

http://wwwhost.cc.utexas.edu/ftp/courses/archaeology/ARY_302/Egypt/02.early_dynastic_egypt.htm October 4, 2000.Photographs of Gerzean Pottery "Gerzean Pot.''

http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~marianb/GerzeanPot.html "Objects from Naqada II Graves.''

http://www.museum.mq.edu.au/eegypt2/naqada2a.html "Painted clay vessel, Gerzean culture.''

http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/single_image/0,5716,11468+asmbly%5Fid,00.html "Clay vessel from the late Gerzian Period.''

http://www.secular.org/library/modern/gerald_larue/otll/chap6.html "Gerzean Vase.''

http://www.atlan.org/articles/temple2/zoom/fig3c.jpg

Written By Kozue Takahashi.

MIDDLE TIME:

Middle Predynastic
(4,000 - 3,500 B.C.E.)

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The Middle Predynastic Period in Egypt dates to 4000 B.C.E. This time period is also referred to as the Gerzean Period or the Naqada Period. It is most recognized by the growing influence of the peoples of the north over those of the South, a prelude to what is to come in the late pre-dynastic period. The two main groups were the Amratian and the Gerzean. The greatest difference that can be seen among these people is in their ceramic industry. The Amratian pottery had some decoration, but its main purpose was functional. Gerzean pottery was decorated with geometric shapes and realistic animals. Decoration of ceramic vessels went through a dual evolution that began to include geometric motifs inspired by plant forms and painted or incised depictions of animals and shapes, with the appearance of thereomephic vessels. The art of clay-working had already reached its peak, particularly in the painted terracotta female "dancers" with raised arms.

Animals such as ostriches and ibexes were found on their pottery, this lead some to speculate that the Gerzean were hunting in the sub-desert, because these animals are not found in the Nile Valley. In this period we also find the first representations of gods. Most of this was through their art on pottery. The gods were depicted as riding in boats. Some believe that this could be only records of visits from chieftains and records of battles. However these items were placed with the dead, which suggests that they were sacred.

Changes in funerary practices among the Gerzean were found in this period. People were found buried in the fetal position and accompanied by sacred items and food. Children were now buried in cemeteries outside the villages instead of under the floor of their dwelling. We also begin to see tomb building in this era. The changes of burial customs have lead us to believe that this was a time of belief in the concept of life after death. The Amratian culture was not as elaborate with their burial practices; their dead were usually buried in a small pit with a skin cover over it.

The appearance of historical architectural forms, "models" that the deceased took with him into the afterlife, have revealed the existence of houses and mud-brick enclosure walls. This suggests that the concept of the Egyptian town and urban planning can be traced back as far as the Amatian (Naqada I) Phase.

REFERENCES:

Adams, Barbara. Pre-Dynastic Egypt. Lubrecht and Cramer, Ltd. New York. 1988 Bains, John. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Facts on File inc. 1980Greenblatt, Miriam. Hatshepsut and Ancient Egypt. Marshall Cavendish Inc.

EARLY EGYPT:

Early Pre-Dynastic

(4,500 - 4,000 B.C.E.)

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Prior to 4000 B.C.E., Egypt was populated by nomadic tribes complete with different cultures and traditions. Sometime around this date, however, the tribes began to band together. The Early Predynastic is marked by the development of the Faiyum Culture in the north and the Badarian Culture in the South. Differences between the two cultures are primarily in the areas of stone-working, pottery manufacture and the production of flint tools and weapons. Another difference between the two lies in the relative importance of their hunting and fishing activities. The people of the Faiyum tended to aquire their food by non-agrarian methods. The Badarian Culture was based on farming, hunting, and mining. They traded for various products, including wool and turquoise, and made carved objects and pottery. They had a great deal of knowledge about copper ores and how to extract the metals.

This era also witnessed advances in furniture and agricultural equipment. There was an obvious development in funeral ritualistic practices, in which the deceased would be buried under the simple protection of a animal skin, but the tomb began to take on a more solid architectural appearance. The production of black-topped pottery, at this time, reached a sophisticated level. Bone and ivory objects such as combs, cosmetic spoons, and female figurines became particularly common.

Decorative clay objects were common, in particular those called the “dancer”, or small women with their arms upraised. Artifacts from 3300 B.C.E. indicate further development in both culture and technology. There is evidence among the Naqada of advanced burial and irrigation systems. Small models of houses (similar to those from the Old Kingdom) were found in some of the burial sites.

They had larger settlements, and traded with outsiders for materials like lapis lazuli, and are first noted around 4000 B.C.E.. They made decorated pottery, as well as clay and ivory figurines. The pottery had geometric shapes or animals painted or carved on it instead of the previous method of simple banding. Items became more varied in shape, not only for practical reasons, but also for purely aesthetic ones.

For the most part, during Egypt’s predynastic phase, there are myriads of settlements that develop into small tribal kingdoms. These eventually evolved into two larger groups, one in the delta and one in the Nile Valley up to the delta that once united, began the Dynastic period in Egypt.

Amanda Minich

Fall 2000